半群 ・モノイド ・群 への入口
という
Entrance to semigroups , monoids モノイド , and groups 群 ぐん
If the definition of a group is memorized all at once, from having a binary operation (which includes closure) through having inverses, it is hard to see why those conditions are needed. Instead, add conditions one by one to a
Viewed in this
1半群 はんぐん
の
1Semigroups
A
A semigroup does not require an
Because associativity holds, parentheses can be omitted in a long product such as
This means that every placement of parentheses, with the order of the elements unchanged, gives the same value. The case of three elements is exactly the associative law. For the general case, use induction on the number of elements. Any parenthesization splits at some into a product of the first elements and the remaining elements. Inductively put each part into left-associated form, then repeatedly use associativity to obtain the same left-associated form for the whole product.
2モノイド
が
ここでは とする。すると
2Monoids
A
Here we use . The natural numbers then form a monoid under addition with identity element 0. However, within the natural numbers, not every element has an additive inverse, so this is not a group.
3群 ぐん
となる。
3Groups
A
In a group, an operation that moves forward can be undone by an inverse. This property of being able to return is what makes groups the mathematics of symmetries and transformations.
As proved in the preceding lecture, under associativity the identity element and the inverse of each element are unique whenever they exist. Thus the notation denotes one determined element.
4群 ぐん でできる約分 やくぶん
が
であり、
4Cancellation in a group
In a group , for all ,
This is the left cancellation law. Indeed, operating on the left of both sides by gives
and associativity together with the inverse and identity laws yields . Operating on the right by an inverse similarly gives the right cancellation law, .
5具体例 ぐたいれい :自然数 しぜんすう 、整数 せいすう 、有理数 ゆうりすう
はモノイドである。0 は
は
は
5Concrete examples: natural numbers, integers, and rational numbers
With addition,
is a monoid. The
is a
With multiplication,
is a
6非可換 ひかかん な例 れい :全単射 ぜんたんしゃ の合成 ごうせい
2
なので
は
とし、 は 1 と 2 を
6A noncommutative example: composition of bijections
A map is a bijection if, for every , there is exactly one such that . Reversing this correspondence defines the inverse map . Let be the set of all such bijections.
Define composition, the operation of applying two maps in succession, by . A composition of bijections is again a bijection, so closure holds. Moreover, for every ,
so composition is associative. The identity map is the identity element, and the inverse map is the inverse of each bijection . Therefore
is a group.
Let , let interchange 1 and 2, and let interchange 2 and 3. Then , whereas . Thus : commutativity is not part of the definition of a group.
7何 なに が変 か わり、何 なに が保存 ほぞん されるか
7What changes and what is preserved
Moving from semigroups to monoids makes the "do nothing" operation available. Moving from monoids to groups makes the "undo" operation available. In all cases,
8反例 はんれい 補足 ほそく :半群 はんぐん ・モノイド・群 ぐん の階層 かいそう は真 しん に異 こと なる
は
は 0 を
は 0 とすべての
8Counterexample supplement: the hierarchy of semigroups 半群 はんぐん , monoids モノイド , and groups 群 ぐん is strict
Semigroups, monoids, and groups form a hierarchy obtained by adding conditions one at a time. However, the stronger notions do not collapse to the weaker ones.
is a
is a
is a
9演習 えんしゅう リンク
data/exercise/math/abstract-algebra/algebraic-structures-and-binary-operations.exercise.n.md
9Exercise link
data/exercise/math/abstract-algebra/algebraic-structures-and-binary-operations.exercise.n.mdSolve Problems 2, 3, and 4 in sequence to check every condition that makes one operation a group.
10次 つぎ の講義 こうぎ への橋渡 はしわた し
この
10Bridge to the next lectures
The next two lectures use equivalence relations and congruences to collect integers with the same remainder into single elements. With that concrete example in hand, the sequence returns to group foundations and studies as a group.
11まとめ
11Summary
A