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2用語 と定義
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7微分方程式 を読 む手順
問題分析 では、未知関数 、独立変数 、階数 、条件 を確認 する。方針 では、式 の形 から直接積分 、変数分離 、一階線型 などの候補 を選 ぶ。実行 では、選 んだ方法 の条件 を確認 しながら計算 する。検算 では、得 た関数 を元 の微分方程式 と条件 へ代入 する。一般化 では、その解法 がどの型 まで有効 かを確認 する。
この
8最小例 :
なら
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9次 に参照 するページ
data/lecture/math/differential-equations/initial-and-boundary-value-problems.lecture.n.md
data/lecture/math/differential-equations/classifying-first-order-odes.lecture.n.md
10演習 リンク
data/exercise/math/differential-equations/introduction-to-odes-and-direct-integration.exercise.n.md
What Is a Differential Equation?
1Introduction
This lecture explains that a differential equation has a function rather than a number as its unknown and imposes a relation between that function and its derivatives.
In the algebraic equation , the unknown is a number. By contrast, in
with constant , the unknown is the function . The equation states a law of change: the rate of change is proportional to the value at that point. The first objective in studying differential equations is to identify both the change represented by an equation and an applicable solution method from the equation's form.
data/lecture/math/calculus/introduction-to-differential-equations.lecture.n.md2Terms and Definitions
An independent variable is a variable that can vary freely as an input. Ordinary differential equations commonly use or ; the latter often represents time.
An unknown function is a function to be determined so that it satisfies the equation. Examples include and .
The derivative describes how the unknown function changes when the independent variable changes. The occurrence of or in a differential equation imposes a relation among a function's value, its rate of change, and the rate of change of that rate.
A solution is a function that is differentiable as many times as required on the specified interval and satisfies the equation identically when substituted into it.
For example, substituting into gives
Thus, is a solution of .
3What Does It Mean to Solve a Differential Equation?
To solve a differential equation is to determine its solution set on a specified interval, subject to prescribed conditions and a chosen notion of solution. In elementary standard examples, one first determines a family of functions without imposed conditions and then uses the conditions to restrict the candidates. Depending on the independence and compatibility of the conditions, there may be no solution, a unique solution, or multiple solutions.
A general solution is a family of solutions containing arbitrary constants. The general solution of is
A particular solution is one specific solution that satisfies the differential equation. This lecture series uses this terminology consistently.
There is more than one way to obtain a particular solution. If the general solution is known, assigning values to its arbitrary constants selects one member; for example, gives . For a nonhomogeneous equation, one may instead construct a particular solution before forming the general solution.
A singular solution is distinct from a particular solution: it satisfies the differential equation but cannot be obtained by choosing the arbitrary constants in the general solution. A representative mechanism in nonlinear equations is the occurrence of such a solution as the envelope of a family of general solutions. Singular solutions are treated separately from the basic framework of linear operator equations.
data/lecture/math/differential-equations/singular-solutions-and-envelopes.lecture.n.mdAn initial condition specifies the value of a function or its derivatives at a reference point. For
substituting into yields . Therefore,
is the solution satisfying the initial condition.
A boundary condition specifies data involving the function, its derivatives, or their linear combinations at the endpoints of an interval or on the boundary of a domain. An initial condition specifies the state at a reference point, whereas a boundary condition constrains the solution on the boundary of its domain.
data/lecture/math/differential-equations/initial-and-boundary-value-problems.lecture.n.md4Order of a Differential Equation
The order of a differential equation is the highest derivative of the unknown function that occurs in the equation.
The equation
is first order because it contains no derivative higher than . The equation
is second order because it contains . In general, an equation containing derivatives through is an th-order differential equation.
Order matters because it is related to the number of conditions needed to determine a solution. For example, a second-order equation of motion often requires two initial values, position and velocity. This is a typical pattern rather than a guarantee: the independence and compatibility of the conditions must also be established.
5Linear and Nonlinear Equations
A linear differential equation is one in which the unknown function and its derivatives occur to the first power, are not multiplied by one another, and have coefficients that depend only on the independent variables.
For example,
and
are linear, whereas
are nonlinear.
Linearity matters because solutions of the associated homogeneous equation satisfy the superposition principle: linear combinations of solutions are again solutions. This principle underlies the later treatment of second-order linear and nonhomogeneous equations.
6Ordinary and Partial Differential Equations
An ordinary differential equation (ODE) has an unknown function of one independent variable. For example, if , then
is an ODE.
A partial differential equation (PDE) has an unknown function of two or more independent variables and contains partial derivatives. For example, if a temperature depends on time and position , its governing equation may contain both time and spatial derivatives.
This lecture sequence focuses first on ODEs. PDEs are treated separately when spatial dependence and boundary geometry become essential.
7A Procedure for Analyzing Differential Equations
A useful initial procedure consists of problem analysis, method selection, execution, verification, and generalization.
- In problem analysis, identify the unknown function, independent variables, order, and prescribed conditions.
- In method selection, use the equation's form to identify candidates such as direct integration, separation of variables, or a first-order linear method.
- In execution, verify the hypotheses of the selected method while carrying out the calculation.
- In verification, substitute the resulting function into both the original equation and the prescribed conditions.
- In generalization, determine the class of equations for which the method remains valid.
This order of analysis supports method selection from mathematical structure instead of memorization of method names.
8Minimal Example:
Consider as an introductory example. It states that the rate of change is proportional to the current amount.
If , the solutions exhibit exponential growth; if , they exhibit exponential decay.
On an interval where , rewrite the equation as
and integrate to obtain
Hence,
The constant solution is included by taking . This example illustrates the basic procedure: analyze the equation's form, select a method, and verify the resulting function by substitution.